"Let every soul be subject unto the higher powers."
Of this subject he makes much account in other epistles also, setting
subjects under their rulers as household servants are under their
masters. And this he does to show that it was not for the subversion
of the commonwealth that Christ introduced His laws, but for the
better ordering of it, and to teach men not to be taking up
unnecessary and unprofitable wars. For the plots that are formed
against us for the truth's sake are sufficient and we have no need to
be adding temptations superfluous and unprofitable.
And observe
too how well-timed his entering upon this subject is. For when he
had demanded that great spirit of heroism, and made men fit to deal
either with friends or foes, and rendered them serviceable alike to
the prosperous and those in adversity and need, and in fact to all,
and had planted a conversation worthy of angels, and had
discharged anger, and taken down recklessness, and had in every
way made their mind even, he then introduces his exhortation upon
these matters also. For if it be right to requite those that injure us
with the opposite, much more is it our duty to obey those that are
benefactors to us. But this he states toward the end of his
exhortation, and hitherto does not enter on these reasonings which I
mention, but those only that enjoin one to do this as a matter of debt.
And to show that these regulations are for all, even for priests, and
monks, and not for men of secular occupations only, he hath made
this plan at the outset, by saying as follows: "let every soul be
subject unto the higher powers," if thou be an Apostle even, or an
Evangelist, or a Prophet, or anything whatsoever, inasmuch as this
subjection is not subversive of religion. And he does not say merely
"obey," but "be subject." And the first claim such
an enactment has
upon us, and the reasoning that suiteth the faithful, is, that all this
is
of God's appointment.
"For there is no power," he says, "but of God." What
say you? it may
be said; is every ruler then elected by God? This I do not say, he
answers. Nor am I now speaking about individual rulers, but about
the thing in itself. For that there should be rulers, and some rule and
others be ruled, and that all things should not just be carried on in
one confusion, the people swaying like waves in this direction and
that; this, I say, is the work of God's wisdom. Hence he does not say,
"for there is no ruler but of God;" but it is the thing he
speaks of, and
says, "there is no power but of God. And the powers that be, are
ordained of God." Thus when a certain wise man saith, "It is
by the
Lord that a man is matched with a woman" (Prov. xix. 14, LXX.), he
means this, God made marriage, and not that it is He that joineth
together every man that cometh to be with a woman. For we see
many that come to be with one another for evil, even by the law of
marriage, and this we should not ascribe to God. But as He said
Himself, "He which made them at the beginning, made them male
and female, and said, For this cause shah a man leave father and
mother, and shall cleave to his wife, and they twain shall be one
flesh." (Matt. xix. 4, 5; Gen. ii. 24.) And this is what that wise
man
meant to explain. For since equality of honor does many times lead
to fightings, He hath made many governments and forms of
subjection; as that, for instance, of man and wife, that of son and
father, that of old men and young, that of bond and free, that of ruler
and ruled, that of master and disciple. And why are you surprised in
the case of mankind, when even in the body He hath done the same
thing? For even here He hath not made all parts of equal honor, but
He hath made one less and another greater, and some of the limbs
hath He made to rule and some to be ruled. And among the
unreasoning creatures one may notice this same principle, as
amongst bees, amongst cranes, amongst herds of wild cattle. And
even the sea itself is not without this goodly subordination; for there
too many of the clans are ranged under one among the fishes, and
are led thus as an army, and make long expeditions from home. For
anarchy, be where it may, is an evil, and a cause of confusion. After
having said then whence governments come, he proceeds,
"Whosoever therefore resisteth the power, resisteth the ordinance
of
God." See what he has led the subject on to, and how fearful he
makes it, and how he shows this to be a matter of debt. For lest the
believers should say, You are making us very cheap and despicable,
when you put us, who are to enjoy the Kingdom of Heaven, under
subjection to rulers, he shows that it is not to rulers, but to God
again that he makes them subject in doing this. For it is to Him, that
he who subjects himself to authorities is obedient. Yet he does not
say this--for instance that it is God to Whom a man who listens to
authorities is obedient--but he uses the opposite case to awe them,
and gives it a more precise form by saying, that he who listeneth not
thereto is fighting with God, Who framed these laws. And this he is
in all cases at pains to show, that it is not by way of favor that we
obey them, but by way of debt. For in this way he was more likely to
draw the governors who were unbelievers to religion, and the
believers to obedience. For there was quite a common report in
those days (Tert. Ap. 1, 31, 32), which maligned the Apostles, as
guilty of a sedition and revolutionary scheme, and as aiming in all
they did and said at the subversion of the received institutions.
When then you show our common Master giving this in charge to all
His, you will at once stop the mouths of those that malign us as
revolutionists, and with great boldness will speak for the doctrines
of truth. Be not then ashamed, he says, at such subjection. For God
hath laid down this law, and is a strong Avenger of them if they be
despised. For it is no common punishment that He will exact of thee,
if thou disobey, but the very greatest; and nothing will exempt thee,
that thou canst say to the contrary, but both of men thou shalt
undergo the most severe vengeance, and there shall be no one to
defend thee, and thou wilt also provoke God the more. And all this
he intimates when he says, "And they that resist shall receive to
themselves damnation." Then to show the gain of the thing after the
fear, he uses reasons too to persuade them as follows:
Ver. 3. "For rulers are not a terror to good works, but to the
evil."
For when he has given a deep wound, and stricken them down, he
again uses gentler treatment, like a wise physician, who applies
soothing medicines, and he comforts them, and says, why be afraid?
why shudder? For does he punish a person that is doing well? Or is
he terrible to a person who lives in the practice of virtue? Wherefore
also he proceeds, "Wilt thou then not be afraid of the power? Do
that
which is good, and thou shall have praise of the same."
You see how he has made him friends (wkeiwsen) with the ruler, by
showing that he even praises him from his throne. You see how he
has made wrath unmeaning.
Ver. 4. "For he is the minister of God to thee for good."
So far is he from terrifying thee, he says, that he even praises thee:
so far from being a hindrance to thee, that he even works with thee.
When then thou hast his praise and his succor, how is it that thou art
not in subjection to him? For he maketh virtue easier for thee in
other ways also, by chastising the wicked, by benefiting and
honoring the good, and by working together with the will of God.
Whence too he has even given him the name of "Minister." And
consider: I give you counsel to be sober-minded, and he, by the
laws, speaks the same language. I exhort you not to be rapacious
and grasping. And he sits in judgment in such cases, and so is a
worker together with us, and an assistant to us, and has been
commissioned by God for this end. Hence there are both reasons for
reverencing him, both because he was commissioned by God, and
because it was for such an object. "But if thou do that which is
evil,
be afraid." It is not then the ruler that maketh the fear, but our
own
wickedness.
"For he beareth not the sword in vain." You see how he hath
furnished him with arms, and set him on guard like a soldier, for a
terror to those that commit sin. "For he is the minister of God to
execute wrath, a re venger upon him that doeth evil." Now lest you
should start off at hearing again of punishment, and vengeance, and
a sword, he says again that it is God's law he is carrying out. For
what if he does not know it himself? yet it is God that hath so shaped
things (outws etupwsen). If then, whether in punishing, or in
honoring, he be a Minister, in avenging virtue's cause, in driving vice
away, as God willeth, why be captious against him, when he is the
cause of so many good doings, and paves the way for thine too?
since there are many who first practised virtue through the fear of
God. For there are a duller sort, whom things to come have not such
a hold upon as things present. He then who by fear and rewards
gives the soul of the majority a preparatory turn towards its
becoming more suited for the word of doctrine, is with good reason
called "the Minister of God."
Ver. 5. "Wherefore ye must needs be subject, not only for wrath but
also for conscience sake."
What is the meaning of, "not only for wrath?" It means not
only
because thou dost resist God by not being subject, nor only because
thou art procuring great evils for thyself, both from God and the
rulers, but also because he is a benefactor to thee in things of the
greatest importance, as he procures peace to thee, and the blessings
of civil institutions. For there are countless blessings to states
through these authorities; and if you were to remove them, all things
would go to ruin, and neither city nor country, nor private nor public
buildings, nor anything else would stand, but all the world will be
turned upside down, while the more powerful devour the weaker.
And so even if some wrath were not to follow man's disobedience,
even on this ground thou oughtest to be subject, that thou mayest
not seem devoid of conscience and feeling towards the benefactor.
Ver. 6. "For, for this cause pay ye tribute also; for they are
God's
ministers, attending continually on this very thing."
Without going one by one into the benefits done to states by the
rulers, as that of good order and peace, the other services, as
regarding the soldiery, and those over the public business, he shows
the whole of this by a single case. For that thou art benefited by him,
he means, thou bearest witness thyself, by paying him a salary.
Observe the wisdom and judgment of the blessed Paul. For that
which seemed to be burdensome and annoying --the system of
imposts--this he turns into a proof of their care for men. What is the
reason, he means, that we pay tribute to a king? It is not as providing
for us? And yet we should not have paid it unless we had known in
the first instance that we were gainers from this superintendence.
Yet it was for this that from of old all men came to an agreement that
governors should be maintained by us, because to the neglect of
their own affairs, they take charge of the public, and on this they
spend their whole leisure, whereby our goods also are kept safe.
After saying then what the external goods are, he again averts to the
former line of argument (for in this way he was more likely to attract
the believer to him), and he shows again that this is God's decree,
and on it he makes his advice rest finally, in these words, "they
are
God's ministers." Then to show the pains they take, and their hard
life, he proceeds, "Waiting continually upon this very thing."
For this is their life, this their business, that thou mayest enjoy
peace.
Wherefore in another Epistle, he bids them not only be subject, but
also "pray" in their behalf. And as showing there too that the
advantage was common to all, he adds, "that we may lead a quiet
and peaceable life in all things." (1 Tim. ii. 1, 2.) For it is in
no small
degree that they contribute to the settled state of the present life, by
keeping guard, beating off enemies, hindering those who are for
sedition in the cities, putting an end to differences among any. For
do not tell me of some one who makes an ill use of the thing, but
look to the good order that is in the institution itself, and you will
see
the great wisdom of Him who enacted this law from the first.
Ver. 7, 8. "Render therefore to all their dues; tribute to whom
tribute,
custom to whom custom, fear to whom fear, honor to whom honor.
Owe (or ye owe) no man anything, but to love one another."
He still keeps upon the same line, bidding them pay them not money
only, but honor and fear. And how is it when he said above, "Wilt
thou not be afraid of the power? do that which is good;" that he
here
says "render fear?" He does it meaning exceeding honor, and
not
the fear which comes from a bad conscience, which he alluded to
before And it is not "give," that he says, but "ren
der" (or "give
back," apodote), and then adds to it, the "dues." For it
is not a favor
that you confer by so doing, since the thing is matter of due. And if
you do it not, you will be punished as Obstinate. Do not suppose that
you are lowering yourself, and detracting from the dignity of your
own philosophy, if you rise up at the presence of a ruler, or if you
uncover your head. For if he laid these laws down at that time, when
the rulers were Gentiles, much more ought this to be done with them
now they are believers. But if you mean to say, that you are
entrusted with greater privileges, be informed that this is not thy
time. For thou art a stranger and a sojourner. A time will be when
thou shalt appear brighter than all. Now thy "life is hid with
Christ in
God. When Christ shall appear, then shall ye also appear with Him in
glory" (Col. iii. 3, 4.) Seek not then in this life of accidents
thy
change, but even if thou hast to be with fear in a ruler's presence, do
not think that this is unworthy thy noble birth. For so God willeth,
that the ruler who has his place marked by Him, should have his own
power; And when he who is conscious of no evil in himself, stands
with fear in the judge's presence, much more will he who doth evil
things be affrighted, and thou in this way wilt be the more respected.
For it is not from honoring that the lowering of self comes but from
dis-honoring him. And the ruler will treat thee with greater respect,
and he will glorify thy Master owing to this, even if he be an
unbeliever. "Owe no man anything, but to love one another. Again he
has recourse to the mother of good deeds, and the instructress of
the things spoken of, who is also productive of every virtue, and
says that this is a debt also, not however such as the tribute or the
custom, but a continuous one. For he does not wish it ever to be
paid off, or rather he would have it always rendered, yet never fully
so, but to be always owing. For this is the character of the debt, that
one keeps giving and owing always. Having said then how he ought
to love, he also shows the gain of it, saying, "For he that loveth
another hath fulfilled the Law."
And do not, pray, consider even this a favor; for this too is a debt.
For thou owest love to thy brother, through thy spiritual relationship.
And not for this only, but also because "we are members one of
another." And if love leave us, the whole body is rent in pieces.
Love
therefore thy brother. For if from his friendship thou gainest so much
as to fulfil the whole Law, thou owest him love as being benefited by
him.
Ver. 9. "For this, Thou shall not commit adultery, Thou shall not
kill,
Thou shall not steal, Thou shall not bear false witness, and any other
commandment, is briefly comprehended in this saying, Thou shalt
love thy neighbor as thyself."
He does not say merely it is fulfilled, but "it is briefly
comprehended,
that is, the whole work of the commandments is concisely and in a
few words completed. For the beginning and the end of virtue is
love. This it has for its root, this for its groundwork, this for its
summit. If then it be both beginning and fulfilment, what is there
equal to it? But he does not seek love merely, but intense love. For
he does not say merely "love thy neighbor" but, "as
thyself." Hence
also Christ said that "the Law and the Prophets hang upon" it.
And in
making two kinds of love, see how He has raised this! For after
saying that the first commandment is, "Thou shalt love the Lord thy
God," He added a second; and He did not stay, but added, "like
unto
it; Thou shall love thy neighbor as thyself." What can be equal to
this
love to man, or this gentleness? That when we were at infinite
distance from Him, He brings the love to us into comparison with
that toward Himself, and says that "is like unto this." Hence
then, to
put the measures of either as nearly the same, of the one He says,
"with all thy heart, and with all thy soul," but of this
towards one's
neighbor, He says, "as thyself." But Paul said, that when this
did not
exist even the other was of no great profit to us. As their we, when
we are fond of any one, say, if you love him, then you love me; so He
also to show this saith, "is like unto it;" and to Peter,
"If thou lovest
Me, feed My sheep." (John xxi. 16.)
Ver. 10. "Love worketh no ill to his neighbor, therefore love is
the
fulfilling of the Law."
Observe how it has both virtues, abstinence from evils (for it
"worketh no ill," he says), and the working of good deeds.
"For it is,"
he says, "the fulfilling (or filling up) of the Law;" not
bringing before
us instruction only on moral duties in a concise form, but making the
accomplishment of them easy also. For that we should become
acquainted with things profitable to us was not alI that he was
careful for (which is the Law's care), but also with a view to the doing
of them it brought us great assistance; accomplishing not some part
of the commandments, but the whole sum of virtue in us. Let us then
love one another, since in this way we shall also love God, Who
loveth us. For in the case of men, if you love a man's beloved, he that
loveth him is contentious at it. But here He deemeth thee worthy to
share His love, and hateth thee when thou sharest not. For man's
love is laden with envy and grudging; but God's is free from all
passion, whence also He seeketh for those to share His love. For He
says, love thou with Me, and then thyself also will I love the more.
You see the words of a vehement lover! If thou love My beloved, then
will I also reckon Myself to be greatly beloved of thee. For He
vehemently desireth our salvation, and this He showed from of old.
Now hear what He saith when He was forming the man, "Let Us make
man in Our Image:" and again, "Let Us make an help meet for
him. It
is not good for him to be alone." (Gen. i. 26.) And when he had
transgressed, He rebuked him, observe how gently; and He does not
say, Wretch! thou very wretch! after receiving so great benefits, hast
thou after all trusted to the devil? and left thy Benefactor, to take up
with the evil spirit? But what saith He? "Who told thee that thou
art
naked, unless thou hast eaten of the Tree, from which alone I
commanded thee not to eat?" (ib. iii. 11.) As if a father were to
say to
a child, who was ordered not to touch a sword, and then disobeyed
and got wounded, "How camest thou wounded? Thou camest so by
not listening to me." You see they are the words of a friend rather
than a master, of a friend despised, and not even then forsaking. Let
us then imitate Him, and when we rebuke, let us preserve this
moderation. For even the woman He also rebuketh again with the
same gentleness. Or rather what He said was not so much rebuke as
admonition and correction, and security against the future. This is
why He saith nothing to the serpent. For he was the designer of the
mischiefs, and had it not in his power to put off the accusation on
any one else, wherefore He punished him severely: and even here He
did not come to a pause, but made the earth also to share in the
curse. But if He cast them out of paradise, and condemned them to
labor, even for this we ought to adore and reverence Him the most.
For since self-indulgence issues in listlessness, He trenches upon
the pleasure by building a fort of pain against listlessness, that we
may return to the love of Him. And what of Cain's case? Doth he not
meet with the same gentleness? For being by him also insulted, He
doth not reproach (same word as insult) in return, but entreats, (or
comforts) him, and says, "Why is thy countenance fallen?"
(Gen. iv.
6.) And yet what he had done allowed of no excuse whatever. And
this the younger brother shows. But still even then He doth not
rebuke him: but what saith He? "Hast thou sinned: keep peace;"
"do
so no more." "To thee shall his turning be, and thou shalt
rule over
him" (ib. 7, LXX.), meaning his brother. "For if thou art
afraid, lest for
this sacrifice," He means, "I should deprive thee of the pre
minence
of the first-born, be of good cheer, for the entire command over him
do I put into thy hands. Only be thou better, and love him that hath
done thee no wrong; for I have an interest in you both. And what
maketh Me most glad is, that ye be not at variance one with
another."
For as a devoted mother, so doth God do and plan everything to
keep one from being torn from another; but that you may get a
clearer view, by an example, of my meaning, call to your mind, pray,
Rebecca in her trouble, and running about everywhere, when the
elder son was at enmity with the younger. For if she loved Jacob,
still she did not feel averse to Esau. And therefore she said, Lest by
any means "I be deprived of both of you, my children, in one
day." (ib. xxvii. 45.) Therefore also God upon that occasion said,
"Thou hast sinned: be at peace: unto thee shall his turning
be" (ib.
iv. 7), so repressing the murder beforehand, and aiming at the peace
of them both. But when he had murdered him, He did not even then
bring His care for him to a close, but again answers the fratricide in
gentle terms, saying, "Where is thy brother Abel?" that even
now, if
he would, he might make a full confession. But he struggled in
defence of his former misdeeds, with a greater and sadder
shamelessness. But even then God doth not leave him, but again
speaks the language of an iujured and despised lover, and says,
"The voice of thy brother's blood crieth unto Me." (Gen. iv.
10.) And
again He rebukes the earth with the murderer, turning His wrath off
to it, and saying, "Cursed be the earth, which opened her mouth to
receive thy brother's blood" (ib. ii.); and doing like those who
lament
(anakalountas), as David also did when Saul was fallen. For he made
an address to the mountains which received him as he died, in the
words, "Ye mountains of Gilboa, let there fall on you neither rain
nor
dew, because there were the shields of the mighty cast away." (2
Sam i. 21.) And thus God also, as though singing some solitary dirge
(monwdian), saith, "The voice of thy brother's blood crieth unto Me
and now art thou cursed from the earth which hath opened her
mouth to receive thy brother's blood from thy hand." And this He
said to humble his fiery passion, and to persuade him to love him at
least now he was gone. Hast thou extinguished his life? He would
say; why dost thou not now extinguish the hatred also? But what
doth He do? He loveth both the one and the other, since He made
them both. What then? doth (4 Mss. will) He let the murderer go
unpunished? Nay, he would but have grown worse. Will He punish
him then? Nay, He hath more tenderness than a father. See then how
He at once punisheth and also displays, even in this, His love. Or
rather, He doth not so much as punish, but only corrects. For He
doth not kill him, but only fetters him with trembling, that he may
divest himself of the crime, that so at least he may come back to a
natural tenderness for the other, and that so at last he may make a
truce with him now he hath gone; for He were fain he should not go
away to the other world in enmity with him that was deceased. This
is the way wherein they that love, when in doing acts of kindness
they meet with no love in return, are led on to be vehement and to
threaten, not with their will indeed, but led by their love to do this:
that at least in this way they may win over those that scorn them. Yet
affection of this sort is one of compulsion, and still this even solaces
them, through the vehemency of their love. And so punishment itself
comes from affection, since unless pained at being hated, they
would not choose to punish either. Now observe, how this is what
Paul says to the Corinthians. For "who is he" (says he)
"that maketh
me glad, but the same which is made sorry by me?" (2 Cor. ii. 2.)
And
so when he is going to the full extent of punishment, then he shows
his love. Thus the Egyptian woman too, from her vehement love, as
vehemently punished Joseph: and she indeed did so for mischief,
the love being unchaste; but God for good, since the love was
worthy of Him who loved. This is why He does not refuse even to
condescend to grosser words, and to speak the names of human
passions, and to call Himself jealous. For "I am a jealous
God" (Ex.
xx. 5), He saith, that you may learn the intenseness of the love. Let
us then love Him as He would have us: for He sets great store
thereby. And if we turn away, He keepeth inviting us, and if we will
not be converted, He chasteneth us through His affection, not
through a wish to exact punishment of us. And see what He saith in
Ezekiel to the city that was beloved, yet had despised Him. "I will
bring thy lovers against thee, and will deliver thee into their hands,
and they shall stone thee, and shall slay thee, and My jealousy shall
be taken away from thee, and I will rest, and I will not trouble Myself
any more."
(From Ezek. xvi. 37-42.) What more than this could a vehement lover
have said, when despised by his beloved, and after all again ardently
loving her? For God doeth everything that He may be loved by us,
and owing to this He spared not even His Son. But we are
unbending, and savage. Yet let us become gentle at last, and love
God as we ought to love Him, that we may with pleasure enjoy virtue.
For if any that hath a beloved wife does not perceive any of the
vexations that come day by day, He that loveth with this divine and
pure love, only consider what great pleasure he will have to enjoy!
For this is, indeed it is, the kingdom of Heaven; this is fruition of
good things, and pleasure, and cheerfulness, and joy, and
blessedness. Or rather, say as many things as I may, I shall still be
unable to give you any such representation of it as should be, but
the trial of it alone can give a knowledge of this goodly thing.
Wherefore also the Prophet saith, "Delight thyself in the
Lord" (Ps.
xxxvii. 4), and, "Taste and see that the Lord is gracious."
(Ib. xxxiv.
8.)
Let us then be persuaded, and indulge ourselves in His love. For in
this way we shall both see His Kingdom even from out of this life,
and shall be living the life of Angels, and while we abide on earth, we
shall be in as goodly a condition as they that dwell in heaven; and
after our departing hence, shall stand the brightest of beings by the
judgment-seat of Christ, and shall enjoy that glory unutterable,
which may we all attain unto, by the grace and love toward man of
our Lord Jesus Christ. For to Him is the glory forever, Amen.
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